Robert S. Littlefield, Collette Canevello, Roberta Egersdorf, Benita Saur, Gwen Stark, Elizabeth Wynia*
Identifying Outcomes for Oral Interpretation Events
Abstract
This article examined the literature in the area of performance studies to determine if criteria can be established to assess whether oral interpretation performers are meeting the expectations of their critics. Five cognitive outcome areas were identified: Students should understand the necessity for elements of the genre to be present in their selections; students should understand the relationship between the author’s assumed intent and the interpretation the reader conveys; students should understand the concept of enhancing an oral interpretation through vocal expression; students should understand the concept of enhancing an oral interpretation through physical expression; and students should understand the conventions of performing an oral interpretation within a specific context. From these outcomes, particular behavioral outcomes were specified to enable critics of oral interpretation to assess whether or not students in speech competitions demonstrate expected oral interpretation skills.
The forensic tournament has been labeled as an extension of the classroom.
In fact, the interrelationship of forensic tournaments and the classroom environment
is one reason why forensics is often called a co-curricular activity. Just as
the classroom teacher is called upon to evaluate each student’s progress
in mastering the curricula, so are critics asked to rank and rate the students
competing in the various categories offered at speech contests.
One of the general categories of competitive speech events is the oral interpretation
of literature, which includes the reading of prose, poetry, and dramatic literature.
In this category of competition, students select a story, poem, or piece of
dramatic literature and read it orally for an audience. Because the student
is called upon to interpret the literature, the judging of the students is subjective,
relying on the judges’ preferences to help determine the winners.
The make-up of those who adjudicate forensic tournaments varies. Some critics
are long- time teachers with extensive backgrounds in literature and the arts.
Others are teachers or adults from the community who have a general communication
or theatre background but who are not coaching forensic teams. Finally, some
are college-aged individuals with areas of specialization based upon the events
in which they competed while in high school. Because of the different levels
of expertise held by these judges, students often receive conflicting evaluative
comments on their ballots as reasons for why they ranked a particular way. Further,
comments are offered which appear to coach the student on how something should
be read or interpreted, in contrast to comments that assess their mastery of
particular outcomes that are recognized as intrinsic components of the interpretive
performance.
Not all observers are convinced that students in forensics are acquiring the
skills/outcomes forensic educators say forensics provides. Some argue that forensics
is becoming a specialized activity for a particular audience, rather than for
a broader public. Bartanen (1994) and others called for the introduction of
assessment into the competitive environment of speech tournaments to determine
if students are mastering the expected outcomes in the various individual events.
This call resulted from two motivations: 1) Students were being coached in what
some would call a “sophistic” manner to win, using particular emotional
techniques without understanding the motivation behind them; and 2) judges were
using varying standards of evaluation, making the mastery of specific skills
difficult, if not impossible for the students, because what one judge noted
as exceptional, another cited as a weakness. In one of the few studies going
beyond anecdotal assessment of individual events, Littlefield et al. (1998)
identified outcomes in the original public speaking events and determined that
critics were able to use these outcomes to assess whether students were meeting,
exceeding, or failing to meet their expectations. However, for the interpretive
events, no such compilation of outcomes or assessment has been established.
Assessment of individual speech events continues to be needed as teachers determine
if what they are teaching their students meets the expectations of the critics
in the laboratory of forensic tournaments. This prompts the general research
questions:
• For what cognitive outcomes should student competitors in oral interpretation
strive?
• From these general outcomes, what particular behaviors can be identified
to enable critics to assess whether or not students are demonstrating expected
oral interpretation skills?
For clarity, oral interpretation events will include the categories of prose,
poetry, and drama, and dramatic duo (two performers of one piece of literature).
Although the Greeks and Romans were performing as interpreters over 2500 years
ago, competitive oral interpretation is a relatively new development (Pelias,
31). As a result, performance outcomes still have not been universally established
or accepted. To create a basis for a set of oral interpretation outcomes, a
survey of relevant literature was conducted. Five overarching themes emerged:
Students should understand the necessity for the elements of the genre to be
present in their oral interpretation; students should understand the relationship
between the author’s assumed intent and the interpretation the reader conveys;
students should understand the concept of enhancing an oral interpretation through
vocal expression; students should understand the concept of enhancing an oral
interpretation through physical expression; and students should understand the
convention of performing an oral interpretation within a specific context.
Understand the elements of the genre
One of the main reasons why students need to understand the elements of the
genre for their category is related to why students read literature. Reading
literature helps students to better understand themselves, others, and life.
When reading, students can escape, or experience adventures they would never
otherwise experience (Abcarian & Kotz, 1998; Barnet, Berman, Burto &
Cain, 1997). Outcomes for teaching reading and literature include having the
students think critically, analyze, and appreciate art, as well as being able
to identify the main elements and overall meaning within the literature. Beyond
just reading, however, interpretive reading, such as that found in the oral
interpretation categories of competitive speech, “offers a fusion of literature
and communication” (Bowen, Aggert & Rickert, 1978, 12), which helps
educate the whole person. Oral interpretation is perhaps the best way to show
appreciation of the literature, to bring it to life, and to understand the author’s
intent. In actuality, the interpreter of literature is responsible to “capture
the essence of the drama and convey it in a mature and convincing manner to
an audience” (Taylor, 1984). This practice makes the learning more intensive.
Presenting the literature aids in the analysis of the literature and its interpretation
(Bowen, Aggert & Richert, 1978).
Oral interpretation in the speech categories requires analysis of the literature
before it can be interpreted. This analysis and understanding of the genre,
and the elements involved, leads to students who are not only going to be better
speakers, but also better readers and thinkers. In any of the categories of
oral interpretation, students need to understand which genre their selection
is or they will be disqualified. The American Forensic Association says that
a cutting from drama, for example, must represent, “one or more characters
from a play or plays of literary merit” (1994). In poetry, the rules specifically
state that “play cuttings and prose works are prohibited” (1994).
Therefore, speech students in oral interpretation must know what a genre is
and be able to discern whether or not their selection is in the correct category.
Once they have chosen their category and selection, students must be able to
identify the common elements present for that category/genre. Carbone (1986),
in a paper presented at the Speech Communication Association convention, wrote:
Literary analysis is an aid to oral interpretation. It is an instructional tool used to enhance understanding, study motivation, and discover an author’s style and tone. It is used to determine the theme of the material as well as the significance of action and the symbolism of the artifacts. It reveals character motivation, imagery, setting, and description. It fills in the blanks behind conflict and resolution, rhythm and cadence, experience and revelation, understanding and insight. (4)
While any number of literary terms or poetic devices can and may be used when
students analyze their selections, many judges first consider the literary quality
of the selection, which includes the basic elements of character or persona,
plot, and theme. Because it often takes time and much synthesis of literature
before finding a selection, one major benefit of selecting a text of literary
merit is that it exposes the student to good literature (Yordon, 1998).
While critics don’t always agree on a definition of literary merit, most
agree that good literature involves universality (Hindman, Shackelford, Schlottach,
1993; Yordon, 1998). This universality frequently is found in the theme or underlying
message the author wishes to convey. Most themes appeal to a universal audience,
perhaps in the form of an experience of personal values to which all kinds of
people can relate. Analyzing themes in their selections can help students “focus
on the literature, the themes of the literature, the relationship of the literature
to the world around them, and on the creation of the literature” (Carbone,
1986). Klemme (1987/88) agreed that: “students should work with literature
that ultimately has something to say about the human condition.... The human
experiences of marriage, separation, death, and betrayal provide some areas
for examination as potential literature is considered, for it is on these great
themes that significant writers concentrate” (18).
A second essential element is character or persona, which is frequently defined
as who the story, play, or poem is about or “a figure in a literary work”
(Barnet, Berman, Burto & Cain, 1997, 62). There are many questions a coach,
judge, or teacher will ask a student when discussing character or persona. Is
the character round or flat? What are the character’s “physical, emotional,
and intellectual traits?” (Taylor, 1984). Once students have analyzed and
studied the characters in their selections, they should be better able to understand
themselves, others, and the world around them (Yordon, 1998).
Another justification for using characters in oral interpretation is because
judges tend to notice how students develop them. A study entitled, “Critiquing
the Critic: Toward Improving Oral Interpretation Ballots,” identified and
grouped different categories of comments made by judges while critiquing oral
interpretation categories. One category included a number of issues related
to character. These comments identified with “vocal characterization, distinction
between characters, interactions between characters, and thought process of
characters,” just to name a few (Trimble, 1994, 10).
The development of plot and structure is a third element of fiction that students
should be aware of when selecting their texts. According to An Introduction
to Literature (Barnet, Berman, Buto, Cain, 1997), plot is defined as the “happenings”
in a work of literature (61). How well the plot or action of a scene is developed
in students’ selections is another way to help students further understand
the actions and events that happen in their own and others’ lives. For
example, in prose and drama, plot development typically includes some form of
conflict, complications, and other rising action, which eventually leads to
some sort of climax and resolution or falling action. In real life, conflicts
and complications also arise. When students read and follow the development
of plots in their selections, they can hopefully come to a better understanding
of how to resolve conflict in their lives. Although poetry typically doesn’t
follow rising and falling action, it does call for some form of action. That
action can also include tension and conflict (Beck, 1969).
When students cut their literary selections, the plot, structure, tension, conflict,
or action must also be considered, so that the cutting contains “a beginning,
middle, and end” (Hindman, Shackelford, Schlottach, 1993, 139). Taylor
(1984) suggested the following question that a judge might ask when evaluating
a student’s cutting of literature: “Does the cutting develop a plot
characterized by rising action, climax, and a resolution of the dramatic conflict?”
Other scholars agree that it is important to include a beginning, middle and
end in order to “maintain the integrity of the material” (Yordon,
1998, 122).
Clearly, understanding the necessary elements of the genre of their oral interpretation
selection provides the foundation for students to further analyze and bring
meaning to their selections. By presenting texts that have identifiable themes
and characters, development of plot, and a beginning, middle, and end, students
will be more successful as they demonstrate their interpretive capabilities
before adjudicators in oral interpretation competitions.
Relationship between author’s intent and reader’s interpretation
Since no two interpretations will ever be identical, the choices that an interpreter
makes must be consistent with the text in order to have believability. For each
line of the script, the interpreter makes conscious choices. Subsequently, since
interpretation is “the art of translating the written word into the spoken
feeling” (Klemme, 21), analyzing, understanding, and communicating the
author’s thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and intentions are important to
the overall interpretation. The interpreter should be subordinate to the literature.
Understanding the literature and conveying that understanding should dominate.
But how does one know that an interpreter understands the author’s intent?
Three observable outcomes can establish this understanding: The presentation
of an introduction that puts the selection into context; the credible presentation
of the characters or persona; and the demonstration of an awareness of the balance
between author’s intent and the sensibilities of the listeners.
One way to show that the interpreter understands the author’s intent is
through the use of an introduction. The introduction should include most of
the following: the title, the author’s name (Yordon, 1223), a summary of
the plot leading up to the start of the selection (Grimes, 327; Fetzik and Littlefield,
12; Sellnow, 4; Shaheen, 11), and a listeners’ relevance link and/or an
attention getter (Grimes and Mattingling, 327; Fetzik and Littlefield, 12; Sellnow,
4; Yordon, 122). If the reader incorporates these elements into the introduction,
she/he will automatically develop a clearer understanding of the literature
for himself/herself and his/her audience. The introduction should “begin
the process of analysis with the audience” (Klemme, 20).
A teaser—reading a portion of a selection orally before delivering the
original introduction —is another way to introduce a selection. A teaser
should be used when the audience’s understanding is enhanced because the
reader shares a part of the literature describing an event that took place earlier,
or when the setting is unknown to the audience; then a teaser may be a less
time-consuming way of presenting the situation. It should not be used in place
of an introduction; the reader must still present a clear understanding of the
author’s intent (Sellnow, 5-6).
If all of the needed information to fully understand the oral interpretation
is not given in the introduction, interpreters may use transitions, allowing
the interpreter to speak instead of the author. These transitions provide clarity
especially when cuts are made in prose writings (Beck, 9-10). If a program has
more than one selection, a two- or three-sentence transition will be necessary
to prepare the listeners for the next selection, but they also give the interpreter
a moment of reprieve especially from an intensely emotional piece of literature
(Grimes and Mattingling, 329). Transitions should not be an afterthought. Providing
a road map for the listener, the transitions should be carefully planned and
executed which means the interpreter must understand the author’s intent.
Besides providing an appropriate introduction, the delivery of credible characters,
or persona in an oral interpretation is essential if one is to present a legitimate
reading that allows the reader to convey the author’s assumed intent. Performers
must carefully choose which insights to stage, and their performance should
be seen as instances of preferred choices (Pelias, 61-62). Since the choices
seem endless, the following suggestions are offered as examples. In Group Performance
of Literature, seven considerations are suggested: biological (human or animal,
race, male or female); physical (physical size, age, voice, health, posture);
social (class, nationality, education, religion); dispositional (personality,
temperament, mood); motivation (desires, goals, purposes); deliberate (quantity
and quality of characters in thought; and decisive (decision-making) (Long,
et al., 38-53). In The Oral Interpreter and Character Analysis, Owens (1970)
stressed believable, three-dimensional characters. These three dimensions are
physical (age, sex, health, appearance); sociological (class, family status,
cultural pattern, environment); and psychological (emotions, needs, desires,
qualities) (21). Probably most important in the analysis of non-narrative literature
is an understanding of the characters. The reader’s task must include “particular
attention to clear, unmistakable characterization” (Manchester, 6).
In addition to considering the choices made by the interpreter, the other issue
is credibility: A character must prove himself/herself with each and every line
(Klemme, 21). If the performer is to have the literature come alive, she/he
must escape identification with his/her own body. It is not the character who
becomes real in the interpreter, it is the interpreter who becomes unreal in
his character (Minister, 4; Pelias, 67). This reality can be accomplished by
repeating vocal and physical acts of the persona/character (Pelias, 67). It
is also important to note that when choosing vocal and physical acts, the interpreter
must be aware of inappropriate behaviors as well as appropriate behaviors for
his/her persona/character. Choices must be consistent with one another and aesthetically
appealing (Pelias, 64-66).
Since introductions and characters/persona have been addressed, showing the
importance of balancing author’s intent and listener’s sensibilities
is the next outcome. The need to be concerned with the author’s intent,
that which contributes to the final statement of the work, becomes a focus as
interpreters juggle to decide what material, if any, should be cut since the
author felt all of his/her words were needed for the overall meaning of the
story. The reader must also concern him/herself with the sensibilities of the
listeners and especially the judge (Pelias, 37; Fetzik and Littlefield, 6; Klemme,
20). In the category of dramatic interpretation, the question of appropriateness
is a bigger issue than in any other competitive category. There are conflicting
ideas about appropriateness (Shaheen, 11). Defining appropriateness, audience
members and judges are not impressed with an interpreter who uses excessive
profanity or sexual references for startling effects. This is not to say that
they should never be allowed (Klemme, 19). However, an interpreter should cut
out extreme profanity or any elements which might offend the judge and other
listeners (Beck, 10). An interpreter if she/he wants to be successful should
remember that: “The individual member of the audience may read privately
whatever his/her personal tastes dictate, but when she/he becomes part of the
audience, the responsibility for the selection...becomes that of the interpreter”
(Manchester, 3).
When students understand the relationship between the author’s assumed
intent and the interpretation the reader conveys, they will be better able to
demonstrate their interpretation in a manner that will be accepted by the critic.
Through an introduction, the credible presentation of characters or persona,
and the demonstration of an awareness between the author’s intent and the
sensibilities of the listeners, the interpreter will show how intent and interpretation
interact in performance.
Vocal expressiveness
Vocal expression is a learned behavior. Anderson (1977) contended that there
are no human organs that function inherently for the purpose of speaking. Because
speech is a human invention, it stands to reason that if speech can be learned
poorly, humans can also improve their vocal expression. Oral interpretation
offers students both opportunities.
Whether the student studies vocal expression as a way of enhancing oral interpretation,
or the student studies oral interpretation as a way of enhancing vocal expression,
the result can be increased communication skills. It is these same skills that
aid human beings in adapting to their environments. Speech, generally, and paralanguage,
specifically, are culturally relevant and highly necessary for the psychological
and economic well-being of the individual in a society. A well-developed voice
is an asset that can aid the student in all aspects of communication (Anderson,
1977).
Facial and physical aspects are important parts of speech, but vocal dimensions
are crucial. At the Second National Developmental Conference on Forensics, judges
considered the voice to be the “primary” means with which to enhance
or detract from an oral interpretation (Vertabedian, 1995). However, as Anderson
(1977) pointed out, verbal expression for most students will probably have been
largely learned through imitation of ineffectual role models. In other words,
the verbal expression that individuals are learning from their friends, at school
and at home, is not as effective as it could be. Secondly, Anderson contends
that vocal expression must be polished in an on-going manner. As the athlete
continues to train in order to stay in shape, speakers need to continue to train
vocally or they will lose some of the effectiveness of their expression. Anderson
uses the terms “lip-lazy” and “slovenly” to describe ineffective
vocal aspects.
Even though the individual is born with certain physical traits which do predetermine
certain vocal dimensions, many vocal characteristics are learned, including:
rate, pause, volume, emphasis, articulation and pronunciation, and vocal variety.
The quality of the interpretation is helped or hindered with the use or misuse
of rate and pauses. Oral interpreters learn that by varying their speed and
knowing where and for how long to pause, they can capture the literature’s
tone (Woolbert and Nelson, 1968). Rate is very important for comprehension.
If the rate is too slow, then the listener can become distracted with boredom,
but if the rate is too fast, the listener may not have enough time to think
about and digest what is being said (Vertabedian, 1995). When rate is used effectively,
it helps the interpreter in a variety of ways. Because no two people speak at
the same rate, the rate at which the characters speak can be varied in order
to distinguish between them (Yordon, 1993). Rate also allows the interpreter
to express subtle variations that are found in the piece, including various
emotions. Similarly, the interpreter should control the rate so every sound
is formed accurately (Lee and Gura, 1982).
Rate also involves the use of pause. Woolbert and Nelson (1968) contended that
the lack of pause is the surest mark of the novice. On the other hand, the oral
interpreter can effectively use pauses to reinforce the central idea, create
suspense, reinforce meaning, and direct the listener’s focus. The pause
can also be effectively used with characterization in order to show hesitation
and uncertainty or to allow the character a moment to think (Yordon, 1993).
Pitch and volume make up the next category. A high pitch can be used to communicate
excitement, delight, and fear. High pitch can also mean that the character is
youthful or immature. Low pitch, on the other hand, can be used to convey despair,
reverence, tranquility, heaviness, or sobriety (Pelias, 1992; Yordon, 1993).
Slight differences in pitch are often sufficient. Big differences can adversely
affect the interpretation by drawing attention to themselves instead of the
literature. When used correctly, changes in pitch can alert the listener to
meaning, aid the interpreter in building to a climax, and add variety and richness
to the selection. Varying the pitch will produce a melodious sound, whereas
the lack of such variety creates a monotone. Lee and Gura (1982) especially
recommend that the interpreter of poetry avoid the tendency to begin new thoughts
or lines on a high pitch and end the thought or line with a low pitch. Both
pitch and volume work to emphasize parts of the literature (Pelias, 1992).
Volume can be understood in two ways. First, volume is often synonymous with
projection, meaning interpreters should have sufficient volume so as to he heard
by everyone in the audience. Vertabedian (1995) was amazed at how many nervous
and/or beginning interpreters he was unable to hear. Interpreters should have
sufficient volume so that the audience can hear them without straining. Additionally,
the interpreter’s voice should fill the room without the voice sounding
distorted. The interpreter should strive to be as flexible as possible while
still being easily heard by the audience (Lee and Gura, 1982). Volume also refers
to vocal expressiveness of the literature. Shifts in volume can make scenes
more interesting by adding vocal variety. However, Yordon (1993) warned the
interpreter against trying to substitute loudness for intensity.
The third category consists of emphasis, variety, and inflection. Emphasis can
be created by changing the rate, the pitch, volume, or rhythm or by using a
pause. Emphasis is very important because it gives vitality and life to the
reading. Nouns and verbs generally receive emphasis over adjectives and adverbs
(Beck, 1969). Because not all elements in a selection are equally important,
emphasis is required in order for the interpreter to demonstrate to the listener
which parts are more important (Vertabedian, 1995). Emphasis is interwoven with
the concept of variety. Without variety, speech is tedious. The variety may
be created by changing the variables of pitch, volume, or the rate. Without
variety, the voice is monotone (Pelias, 1992). Inflection is important for enhancing
meaning. Pelias (1992) suggested the various meanings that the word “really”
can take on depending on the inflections given to it. “Really” can
be said to ask a question, show excitement, convey disgust, or portray an adamant
response. Rising inflections are used to ask a question and falling inflections
make a statement. Inflection is also used by interpreters to create mood.
Category four deals with the vocal clarity aspects of articulation and pronunciation.
Pelias (1992) clarified the distinction between articulation and pronunciation
this way: Articulation is the creation of sounds which form words through the
proper use of the articulators (tongue, teeth, lips, hard and soft palate);
pronunciation refers to the way the syllables and words are emphasized and presented
in speech. Critics call the improper use of the articulators “lazy speech”
(Vertabedian, 1995; Woolbert and Nelson, 1968).
The final vocal category is credible vocal variety. Just as the musical instrument
is needed to bring the musical score to life, so too is the interpreter’s
voice the tool with which the literature is given three-dimensional meaning
(Beloof, 1966). The interpreter can manipulate all of the aspects of vocal expression
and in so doing enhance the characterization. If a character is shy, the interpreter
may choose to speak softly; if a character is dull, then the interpreter may
speak slowly (Pelias, 1992). The elements of inflection and pitch are probably
the most important in order to avoid one-dimensional characterization and often
a slight variation in pitch is sufficient (Woolbert and Nelson, 1968; Yordon,
1993). Characterization can be accomplished with mere suggestion (Lee and Gura,
1983). Beloof (1966) postulated that the vitalization of the personae may be
the interpreter’s greatest aim because the listener like the silent reader
cannot hear such things as the character’s dialect, emotion, or any of
the other subtle nuances found within the characterization unless the oral reader
vitalizes them. Pelias (1992) advised interpreters to avoid falling back on
Hollywood’s stereotyped characterization, and to instead experiment with
variety, volume, and vocal clarity, in order to discover the personae.
In summary, while verbal expression is often poorly learned, the vocal aspects
of oral interpretation are largely under the control of the student and instructor.
Therefore, vocal expression may very well be the most important outcome the
oral interpreter will strive to reach.
Enhancing oral interpretation through physical expression
Everyday conversations reflect an understanding that communication involves
more than the production of verbal symbols. It also involves nonverbal aspects
which can be defined as the conscious or subconscious transmission and reception
of unspoken messages. In oral interpretation, the audience sees the speaker’s
bodily tension and activity before it hears the speaker’s words (Burgood,
Buller & Woodall, 1998). Estimates of the percentage of meaning gained from
nonverbal communication range from 60 percent to 90 percent (Burgood et al.,
1989; Coger, 1972; Vasile, 1996). These nonverbal messages can act alone, reinforce
the verbal message, supersede the verbal message, or conflict with the verbal
message (Lewis, 1996). Body language is so revealing of basic character and
personality that when presented with conflicting messages, people tend to believe
the nonverbal behavior over the verbal (Pelias, 1992; Vasile, 1996; Burgoon
et al., 1989; Lewis, 1996; Bowen, Aggertt & Rickert, 1978). Some experts
assert that nonverbal communication is the “foundation of all human communication”
(Frank, 1995).
Because nonverbal communication provides insight into the character’s emotions
and personality, oral interpretation is enhanced by the interpreter’s creation
of the actions that provide this information for the audience. For example,
when a person or character is angry, his body experiences an increase of glandular
secretions and blood sugar, his heart beats faster, and his body and facial
muscles become tense. Therefore, to be effective, the student reader must transform
this energy into meaningful sounds and actions (Beloof, 1996). Because literature
is action-oriented, interpreters must convey action nonverbally (Brooks, Bah
& Okey, 1967). Although nonverbal behavior involves the body acting as a
whole; facial expression, eye contact, gesture, posture, attitude, energy, and
poise all contribute to the nonverbal messages being sent.
Because of its mobility and elasticity, the face can communicate the actions,
feelings, or emotions expressed in piece of literature. Bowen et al. (1978)
considered facial expressions to be the reader’s most fundamental gestures.
As a communication tool, the face is very versatile. Most physiologists estimate
that facial muscles can be shifted to display 20,000 different expressions,
while some researchers claim that the face is capable of producing as many as
250,000 expressions (Birdwhistell, 1970).
The face is the center of emotional expressiveness (Thompson & Fredricks,
1967; Geeting, 1966). Researchers of nonverbal communication claim that facial
movements communicate at least eight distinct emotions—happiness, surprise,
fear, anger, sadness, disgust, contempt, and interest. Others argue that the
list should also include bewilderment and determination (DeVito, 1996). Usually
the face is the most reliable single indicator of mood and attitude (Bowen et
al., 1978). However, facial expressiveness can be controlled. Facial management
techniques include: 1) intensifying to exaggerate a feeling; 2) de-intensifying
to underplay a feeling; 3) neutralizing to hide a feeling; and 4) masking to
substitute the expression of one emotion for another (DeVito, 1996). The quality
of any performance is enhanced when facial expression and the verbal message
coincide.
Besides influencing the audience’s involvement during a presentation, facial
expression can also influence the performer’s level of emotional arousal.
According to the Facial Feedback Hypothesis, a subject’s facial expression
influences his or her level of positive or negative physiological arousal. In
studies, subjects who exaggerated their facial expressions showed higher levels
of physiological arousal when compared with subjects who had suppressed their
facial expressions (Devito, 1996). Facial expression is an important tool of
the interpreter because it communicates emotion, it can be controlled and therefore
used as a performance tool, and it can heighten the performer’s other physiological
responses and thus influence his/her level of emotional arousal and overall
performance.
While the face may be the most communicative part of the body, the eyes are
the most communicative part of the face (Lewis, 1991). Use of the eyes requires
special attention because they are the performer’s chief means of bringing
the audience into the interpretation (Beloof, 1966). The use of the eyes in
oral interpretation involves both the ability to control and the ability to
communicate with the audience. Making direct eye contact during the introduction
signals the audience’s attention and opens the lines of communication.
The use of focal points, also called off-stage focus, helps the audience distinguish
characters. Eyes looking up or to the side may signal an inner expressed focus
in which the character reveals thoughts and feelings (Lewis, 1991).
Looking down at the script for long periods of time will almost certainly result
in loss of audience involvement. Although the performer must hold the script,
memorization or familiarity with the text is desirable because excessive visual
reliance on reading, prevents the performer from using his/her eyes to their
fullest advantage (Klemme, 1987-88). It is also important to note that a quick
glance at the text while speaking draws very little attention to itself, while
that same glance during a pause will likely distract the audience and break
the mood. This timing is important because the facial expressions of the interpreter
during pauses often signal the flow of one emotion into another (Beloof, 1966).
The eyes, as the center of facial expressiveness, can communicate a wide variety
of emotions or feelings, which may vary in intensity depending on the duration,
direction, and quality of the eye behavior (DeVito, 1996). Because they are
capable of these gradations of intensity, the eyes are the key to proper development
and flow of emotion (Beloof, 1966).
Gestures can be defined as any clearly discernable movement of the hands, arms,
head, or shoulders which helps express or emphasize an idea. In oral interpretation,
gestures must be distinguished from acting or pantomiming. The actor represents
and is the character. The interpreter presents and suggests the character. The
action, although suggested, must be imagined (Thompson & Fredricks, 1967).
For most, gesturing is a natural part of the personality. To establish the physical
personality of a character, a performer should devise a number of meaningful
gestures (Shaheen, 1988-89). Care must be taken to develop natural gestures
which are positive, direct, and meaningful, while avoiding gestures which result
in distracting mannerism. Because gesturing helps portray the character and
personal mannerism of the people in the script, these performance gestures must
be considered and intentional (Frank. 1995). Interpreters must experiment with
degree of intensity (overly tense to overly lax), duration of action (overly
short to overly long), and range of movement (narrow to broad) if gestures are
to express variations in the personalities and emotional states of characters
(Coger, 1972). Once the performer has experimented with the variations of a
gesture, she/he must practice the gesture to develop “muscle memory.”
After repetition, the performer will build up muscle sense and memory, and the
movement will tend to become reflexive (Woolbert & Nelson, 1962).
Gesturing becomes more meaningful as the performer develops an understanding
of the character’s intentions. Pelias (1992) sees this as a circular process:
Understanding leads to doing, and doing leads to understanding. Identifying
motivation helps the performer find actions that arise from a character’s
purpose or goal. Natural gestures require integration with the rest of the body
(Beloof, 1966). The full experience of a thought should involve the whole body—brain,
nerves, muscles—working together (Bowen et al., 1978). Normally, an action
or gesture precedes a character’s words. The character’s face and
body react to his/her thoughts before she/he verbalizes them (Beloof, 1966).
Posture, the alignment of body parts, affects both the audience and the speaker.
Posture can reflect a person’s or character’s attitude, pride, confidence
and general health (Vasile, 1996). For example, most people interpret a straight
posture, with head up, as conveying confidence. In interpretation, the performer
should make certain that his/her posture is responsive to the language and at
the same time open to the audience (Bowen et al., 1978). A proper stance will
look and feel comfortable and will allow the interpreter to move and gesture
freely.
During a performance, the interpreter’s posture helps to communicate the
essence of the literature (Frank, 1995). It can reveal the intensity level of
emotions and suggest a character’s gender, age, body type, and attractiveness
(Lewis, 1991). A slight shift of pose can be used to symbolize characters and
help the audience to distinguish one character from another (Beloof, 1966).
Although it often requires only subtle movements, effective use of posture adds
to the total effect of the interpretation (Bowen et al., 1978).
Attitude is a dimension of a character’s inner, psychological condition.
It is always evident on the outside of that character as externalized response.
To one degree or another, it is communicated nonverbally. To interpret a character
or persona, a performer must have an inner vision and believe in the reality
of what he or see sees. As s/he performs, the audience will see that reality
in the face and body and will believe it, too (Beloof, 1966). The interpreter
must learn to develop those attitudes which will show his/her understanding
of the characters’ actions and thoughts.
Developing this inner vision involves empathy. Empathy allows an interpreter
to “feel into” the experiences of a character or persona and identify
with the emotions (Scrivner,1979). Gestures, facial expression, and even muscle
tone are affected from within by the mental attitude of the speaker (Lee, 1971).
Without empathy, gestures and body movement would appear mechanical. With empathy,
the interpreter’s movements have unity and authenticity.
Bowen et al. (1978) suggested that empathy may be one of the most important
factors for success as a performer. Empathy occurs on a number of different
levels during a performance. It begins when the interpreter empathizes in response
to the literature. During the performance, the audience responds to the interpretation,
often by duplicating the tensions of the reader in an unconscious natural impulse.
The interpreter may even experience an empathetic response to the audience response.
And finally, the audience responds empathetically to the literature (Bowen et
al., 1978).
Energy in a performance can be described as the reader’s own mental or
emotional state of readiness. It is that “slight, continuous tension in
the muscle tissue which facilitates its response to stimulation” (Thompson,
1967) and gives an impression and look of aliveness (Scrivner, 1979). Energy
is important to the interpreter because it makes a performance come alive for
the audience. Two considerations may help the performer develop energy. First,
energy is the result of the performer’s excitement and involvement in the
literature; therefore, it is impossible to have energy without adequate preparation
and practice. Second, if properly controlled, the energy we often refer to as
stage fright can be redirected into achieving a vital, stimulating performance
(Lee, 1971).
Poise is self-assurance. It is the feeling you convey to your audience that
you have something worth saying, that you want to say it, that you are fully
prepared, and that you regard this audience as fully capable of appreciating
what you are about to say (Bowen et al., 1978). Having a sincere interest in
the audience, a pleasant expression and an attitude of enjoying the selection
with the audience will all help to achieve a more poised impression. Poise helps
the interpreter make a strong initial impression and get the audience’s
attention. It allows him/her to pause for a moment at the end of the performance
to let the last thought linger (Lewis, 1991).
Nonverbal communication is a powerful performance tool for the audience and
the performer. Every movement the performer makes will evoke a response in the
audience; even lack of movement will evoke a response. The effect of body language
on the audience is subtle but influential. Therefore, all of the performer’s
visible activity should be directed toward achieving a desired response. In
addition, the study of movement teaches performers a deeper understanding of
nonverbal communication. It encourages students to explore the subtleties of
emotion that can be expressed with the face and body and helps them develop
empathy through identifying with others. Poise and confidence, as well as insight
into character, personality, and emotion are also demonstrated when interpreters
to respond physically to literature as an artistic form (Coger, 1972).
The conventions of oral interpretation
Adhering to the accepted rules of oral interpretation is especially important
to the student participating in competition. Ignorance of oral interpretation
conventions could result in the disqualification of the reader. Even a lesser
penalty, such as the loss of points or an automatic ranking of five, seems an
unnecessary price to pay for being uninformed. In interscholastic competitions,
student readers are responsible for choosing literature appropriate for the
category in which they are entered, preparing and memorizing an introduction
to their selected literature, and interpreting the literature in a manner appropriate
to the performance space and time allocated for each speaker, with the script
being used as unobtrusively as possible.
When choosing literature for oral interpretation, the reader should select the
appropriate genre for the category. In a poetry interpretation, the selections
must be understood and accepted as poetry. Dramatic literature must come from
plays is written with stage direction and parts. Prose interpretation clearly
has a narrative persona implied in the text. Students may have difficulty in
categorizing literature into genre. It should be the responsibility of the coach
to aid the student in this to avoid penalties in a contest situation.
Some state and national associations also have rules regarding the use of explicit
language. Often state associations convey their attitude toward offensive material
and language by suggesting that selected literature should not offend the moral
standards of the community or be in bad taste. Specific references are often
made to the elimination of all cursing, profane reference to the deity, and
immorally suggestive statements. Some states also require an administrator to
sign a statement on the registration form attesting that he/she approves the
literature being used in the school’s speech and play entries (NDHSAA,
9). Clearly stated rules on appropriate material and language can help to clarify
expectations at contests.
Once the text is chosen, care should be taken to cut the piece to the appropriate
time limit, allowing adequate time for an introduction. Yordon (1993) acknowledged
the need for the interpreter to “delete words, lines, and even whole paragraphs
or pages to fit time limits” (132). Time limits exist to ensure the equal
participation of all readers. Time limit rules are fair. During an event, timekeepers
are assigned to time the entries accurately and signal the reader through the
use of hand signals or time cards. The rules regarding time, and signals vary
from contest to contest. It is the responsibility of the coach and the participant
to know the time limit for an oral interpretation entry and the rules for the
contest entered. There are penalties for going overtime.
The introduction is an important part of every oral interpretation, Swartz (1986)
wrote: “The introduction…should establish [the meaning and value of
the literature] clearly in the minds of audience members, by serving informational,
rhetorical and aesthetic functions” (6-7).
Yordon assigned the introduction five main purposes:
(1) It prepares the audience for the specific selection you are performing;
(2) it prepares you to perform for the audience; (3) it lets the audience see
you as you are before you begin your performance; (4) it communicates your enthusiasm
for the selection, which, it is hoped, will pique the audience’s interest;
and (5) it persuades the audience to attend to your performance. (123)
She also encourages the oral interpreter to “imagine before you decide”
not to do an introduction, how “the absence of one might dramatically change
the overall impact” of the reading (Yordon, 123). Interpreters participating
in a contest may be required to have an introduction. Required or not, an introduction
is a positive addition to an oral interpretation. Most oral interpretation contestants
are expected to memorize their introduction. They are encouraged to know them
so well that they have a flawless delivery, one that is natural and seems spontaneous.
The convention of using a script for the performance of an oral interpretation
depends on the contest rules. In many states, the script must be used. Other
states do not prohibit the use of scripts but informal norms suggest that most
contestants that want to do well will perform without the script. Traditionally,
the script was used to place the emphasis on the literature, rather than the
reader (Yordon, 128). The script should never detract from the relationship
between the reader and the audience. It should “never be used only to compensate
for lack of preparation” (Yordon, 128). The proper use of the script is
a controversial aspect of oral interpretation performance. It is important for
coaches and contestants to read and follow the rules carefully on this issue.
Students who regularly participate in oral interpretation contests can attest
to the varying conditions or the environments in which they perform. Room sizes
vary. These conditions vary the way an interpreter sounds to an audience. Thus,
students need to be ever mindful of adjusting their volume to match the size
of the room. But, over-projecting the voice also can make the performance very
uncomfortable for the audience. Size affects performance, as well. Cavernous
spaces lack warmth, intimacy. Cramped spaces can be stuffy, with the reader,
audience, and judge almost on top of one another. A violation of personal space
can make audience members uncomfortable (Lewis, 34). Whatever the environment,
it is important for the contestant to adjust.
The rules governing oral interpretation events vary from tournament to tournament,
and even between states and national organizations. For this reason, students
and coaches must be familiar with the conventions of performing oral interpretations
within specific contexts for practical, as well as aesthetic reasons.
The identification of behavioral outcomes and assessment items
For each of the cognitive outcomes identified in this essay, behavioral outcomes
can be identified to provide the basis for assessment items to measure if students
are meeting, exceeding, or failing to meet the expectations of their critics.
While the behavioral outcomes and assessment items are not exhaustive, they
do provide a basis for establishing a more consistent measurement of student
performance levels in competitive environments. The tables accompanyng this
article describe these guidelines in detail.
Two direct benefits result from identifying outcomes and developing assessment
items for students in oral interpretation events: (1) Clearer standards for
judges; and (2) improved performances by students. First, the behavioral outcomes
and assessment items, derived from the cognitive outcomes, provide a means for
the critic to determine if students are demonstrating the skills of interpretation
that forensic educators have identified in the literature as important. With
identifiable outcomes to measure, critics are better able to make comments that
are pertinent to objective criteria. These clearer standards should result in
more consistent judging at speech tournaments. Similarly, with clearer standards
and more specific items for assessment, students of interpretation should be
able to focus on specific areas needing improvement. The result should be better
student performances.
The indirect benefits are numerous. However, the most significant may come when
this attention to assessment is used as reinforcement by teachers and speech
coaches who must justify their forensic programs to administrators seeking to
reduce spending or reclaim what they consider to be lost “school time”
for students involved. By using cognitive and behavioral outcomes, along with
measurable assessment items, the link between classroom and speech contest can
be supported. By reinforcing the co-curricular, rather than extra-curricular
dimension of forensics, there may be more support to retain funding and there
may be less opposition to traditional school time lost when students are participating
in speech contests.
Conclusion
Whether in the traditional classroom or at the off-site tournament classroom,
all participants—students, teachers, coaches, and judges—can benefit
from knowing and applying the skills involved with the five cognitive outcomes
identified in this essay. By understanding and applying the elements of the
genre; understanding and conveying the relationship between the author’s
assumed intent and the interpretation the reader conveys; understanding and
demonstrating the enhancement of oral interpretation through verbal and physical
expression; and understanding and performing an oral interpretation following
the conventions of a specific context, judges and coaches can be more helpful
and specific in their instruction and students can identify and focus on those
aspects of their performance that require the most attention.
The assessment of individual speech events is an important component in the
laboratory of forensic tournaments. The next step for forensic educators interested
in assessment should be the application of these outcomes and assessment items
to determine which areas are being mastered or missed by student competitors
in oral interpretation contests.
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* Robert S. Littlefield is a professor of communication
at North Dakota State University, Fargo. Collette Canevello, Roberta Egersdorf,
Benita Saur, Gwen Stark, and Elizabeth Wynia have received their
master’s degrees from, or are currently graduate students in, the communication
department at NDSU.
Appendix:
Cognitive Outcomes/Assessment Items
Cognitive Outcome:
Students will understand the necessity for the elements of the genre to be present
in their oral interpretation.
Behavioral outcomes
1. Students will present selections that have identifiable themes.
2. Students will present selections that have identifiable characters or persona.
3. Students will present selections that develop in a way that is appropriate
to the genre.
4. Students will present texts that have a beginning, middle, and end.
Assessment items
1. The students’ selections have identifiable themes.
2. The students’ selections have identifiable characters or persona.
3. The students’ selections have structure appropriate for the genre.
4. The students’ texts have a beginning, middle, and end.
5. The students’ selections contain tension, conflict, or action.
Cognitive Outcome:
Students will understand the relationship between the author’s assumed
intent and the interpretation the reader conveys.
Behavioral Outcomes
1. Students will provide introductions that put the selection into context.
2. Students will provide interpretations of the characters or persona that are
credible.
3. Students will demonstrate an awareness of the balance between the author’s
intent and the sensibilities of the listeners.
Assessment Items
1. The students’ introductions reflect an understanding of their text materials.
2. The students’ interpretations link their introductions and/or transitions
with their texts.
3. The students’ interpretations reflect authentic characterizations and/or
persona.
4. The students’ inclusion of potentially offensive language is integral
to their interpretations.
Cognitive Outcome:
Students will understand the concept of enhancing an oral interpretation through
vocal expression.
Behavioral outcomes
1. Students will demonstrate the use of appropriate vocal expressions when demonstrating
rate and pauses.
2. Students will demonstrate the use of appropriate vocal expressions when demonstrating
pitch and volume.
3. Students will demonstrate the use of appropriate vocal expressions when demonstrating
emphasis, variety, and inflection.
4. Students will demonstrate the use of appropriate vocal expressions when demonstrating
clarity of articulation and pronunciation.
5. Students will demonstrate credible vocal characterizations.
Assessment items
1. The students vary their rates and use pauses.
2. The students vary their pitches and volumes.
3. The students use emphasis, vocal variety, and inflections.
4. The students’ words are clearly articulated and appropriately pronounced.
5. The students use voices for the characters or persona that seem believable.
6. The students speak loudly enough to be heard by the entire audience.
7. The students create vocal distinctions between the narrator and the characters.
Cognitive Outcome:
Students will understand the concept of enhancing an oral interpretation through
physical expression.
Behavioral outcomes
1. Students will demonstrate the use of eye contact in keeping with the characters’
or persona’s behaviors.
2. Students will demonstrate the use of facial expressions in keeping with the
characters’ or persona’s behaviors.
3. Students will demonstrate the use of gestures in keeping with the characters’
or persona’s behaviors.
4. Students will demonstrate the use of posture in keeping with the characters’
or persona’s behaviors.
5. Students will demonstrate the use of attitude in keeping with the characters’
or persona’s behaviors.
6. Students will demonstrate physical energy in keeping with the characters’
or persona’s behaviors.
7. Students will demonstrate a poised physical presence while performing an
oral interpretation.
Assessment items
1. The students use their eyes as a way of enhancing their delivery.
2. The students focus their eyes away from their scripts more frequently than
at their scripts.
3. The students use facial expressions that enhance their delivery.
4. The students use gestures that are natural.
5. The students use posture to enhance their physical delivery.
6. The students use their bodies to reflect the attitudes or their characters/
persona.
7. The students demonstrate energy through their physical expressions.
8. The students are poised when speaking.
9. The students use focal points/body positions to distinguish between characters
and/or persona.
Cognitive Outcome:
Students will understand the convention of performing an oral interpretation
within a specific context.
Behavioral outcomes
1. Students will have prepared an introduction for their oral interpretation
selection.
2. Students will be free from text in the delivery of their introduction.
3. Students will interpret a selection that is appropriate to the genre.
4. Students will prepare a selection that follows the time limitations of the
category.
5. Students will adapt their vocal and physical delivery appropriately to the
physical environment.
6. Students will use the oral interpretation script in an unobtrusive manner.
7. Students will select particular texts that are appropriate to the educational
context.
Assessment items
1. The students have introductions as part of their presentations.
2. The students are free from their scripts in the delivery of their introductions/
transitions.
3. The students interpret selections that are appropriate to the assigned genre
or category.
4. The students prepare selections that adhere to the time limitations of the
event.
5. The students adapt their overall style of delivery to the setting where they
speak.
6. The students use their script materials unobtrusively.
7. The students’selections are appropriate to the age and experience level
of the listener.
8. The students’selections are appropriate to their ages and experience
levels.